Use spreadsheet or calculator to convert conductivity and temperature data to salinity value. Specific Gravity. Reports on seawater conductivity use micro-, milli- and and sometimes even just siemen/mho per centimeter, depending on the publication. The halocline divides layers of water with different salinity levels 9. No comments were found for Linear Conversion of Conductivity To Salinity. Convert Specific Gravity to Salinity LUMCON 2017-08-28T19:23:18+00:00 Convert Specific Gravity to Salinity If you wish to obtain the salinity of a water sample by using specific gravity, use this calculator. Agricultural runoff or a sewage leak will increase conductivity due to the additional chloride, phosphate and nitrate ions 1. If a measurement is made at a different temperature and corrected to 25 C, then the temperature coefficient must be considered. Likewise, groundwater inflows will contribute to the conductivity of the stream or river depending on the geology that the groundwater flows through. Agricultural runoff, in addition to being high in nutrients, often has a higher concentration of dissolved solids that can influence conductivity 23. Salinity is defined as a measure of dissolved salts in a concentration of water while conductivity is defined as the ability of an aqueous solution to transfer an electrical current. Just as a decrease in temperature increases water density, an increase in salinity will produce the same result. Rain contains carbonic acid, which can contribute to rock erosion. Some conductivity instrumentation comes pre-configured with the option to measure salinity if desired. The method of temperature compensation depends on the manufacturer and model but many use a linear temperature coefficient of 2% per C from 25C (including pHionics). Pure water has a resistance of 18.2 Mohm*cm 5. Calculation based on Fofonoff, P. and R. C. Millard Jr (1983) Algorithms for computation of fundamental properties of seawater. Codornices Creek live monitoring data from Balance Hydrologics gauge above 10th St. Salinity is a measure of the mass of dissolved salts (ionic constituents) in a given mass of solution and usually expressed as parts per thousand (ppt). For this reason, salinity can be most accurately calculated from aqueous solutions with known conductivity ratios. Many of these ions are also present in freshwater sources, but in much smaller amounts 4. These lakes are called meromictic lakes and do not mix completely from top to bottom 4. (As the quantity of ions increases, so does the conductivity.) Sensors are the backbone of any water quality monitoring system since they determine accuracy and reliability. Specific conductance is usually reported in uS/cm at 25 C 6. For example, a liter of seawater may contain 30 grams of salt. These changes can affect an organisms ability to move in a water column, causing it to float or sink beyond its normal range 11. Conductivity is a measure of waters capability to pass electrical flow. The equation is provided below and the rest of the article explains how it was derived and why there are limitations to its use. Distilled or deionized water can act as an insulator due to its very low (if not negligible) conductivity value 2. If coastal water floods, the opposite effect can occur. Raise the conductivity (in mS/cm) to the power 1.0878. This calculator derives salinity from a value of the in situ conductivity (as determined, for example, by a CTD), temperature and pressure. While fresh and brackish water vary significantly in terms of ion concentrations, seawater has a fairly stable composition, allowing for creation of a standard equation relating conductivity to salinity. Soil salinity refers to dissolved salts such as sodium chloride, calcium chloride and magnesium chloride. PSS-78 was derived from the research of Edward Lewis, replacing the less accurate chlorinity scale. Introduction of the International Standard Seawater; Specifically for silver/silver chloride electrodes. As rain flows over rocks and soil, the minerals and salts are broken down into ions and are carried along, eventually reaching the ocean 17. In some freshwater sources, this is reported in mg/L 4, 37. The second table calculates the percent error of conductivity outputs when comparing the temperature coefficient used in PSS-78 (1.9%) to the commonly used temperature coefficient in conductivity sensors (2.0%). Salinity (PSS-78) = Temperature (ITS-90) = Sea Pressure (dbar) = Conductivity (mS/cm) = Search for: History of Salinometry. For a cheaper, but somewhat less accurate, method, try a hydrometer. At room temperature, the concentration of both H+ ions and OH- ions is 10 M (think pH deionized water will have a neutral pH of 7 without atmospheric contact) creating a very small conductivity value 46. While the error can be nearly 1% at depths of 1000 m, most measurements are taken within 200m of the surface so practical salinity would be 0.25% off at most. It is expressed in units of concentration as parts per million . Horizontal stratification also exists in the open ocean due to salinity and temperature gradients. Water's typical conductivity is: 5.5*10-6 S/m ultra pure water. In some rivers, as spring often has the highest flow volume, conductivity can be lower at that time than in the winter despite the differences in temperature 23. Please view This is not for use in any scientific literature but allows dataloggers and receivers with linear scaling to estimate salinity in real-time. Conductivity is the ability of a material to conduct electrical current. Also, the greater the value of the conductivity, the lower the resistance it provides to the flow of electric current.. Customer Service: Weekdays 9am to 5pm PST | +1 (775) 339-0565 |, https://jsta.shinyapps.io/cond2sal_shiny/, or seawater, the temperature coefficient ranges from 1.8-2.1%, with lower temperatures and salinities approaching 1.8%. < https://www.fondriest.com/environmental-measurements/parameters/water-quality/conductivity-salinity-tds/ >. Code 10 - CONVERSION BETWEEN CONDUCTIVITY AND PSS-78 SALINITY. 8. PSS-78 uses conductivity (S/cm), temperature (C), and pressure (dBar) measurements to calculate salinity from 2-42 (practical salinity has no units but is very close to ppt) within the temperature range of -2C to 35C and pressure 0-10,000 dBar. The higher the salinity level, the lower the dissolved oxygen concentration. Table 1. These derivations compare the specific conductance of the sample to a salinity standard such as seawater 6. This range can be used as a baseline to evaluate measurements as expected (and unexpected) values 1. It effectively accounts for the compositional changes of seawater based on latitude and longitude, along with temperature and density. While salinity and chlorinity are proportional in seawater, equations based on this are not accurate in freshwater or when chlorinity ratios change 26. If a measurement is made at a different temperature and corrected to 25 C, then the . These strata are separated by an boundary known as a halocline 9. Unesco Technical Papers in Marine Science 44, 53 pp. When this flow is diverted, the effect of additional freshwater (lowering conductivity) is minimized 23. Use this formula to calculate the salinity, based on the chloride concentration, Cl- salinity (ppt) = 0.0018066 5 Cl- (mg/L) Record this value in the Data & Calculations table (round to the nearest 0.1 mg/L Cl-). As ATC effectively standardizes the conductivity output to 25C within our acceptable margin of error (5%), temperature change can be eliminated as a variable in practical salinity calculations. Estuaries are unique in that they can have horizontal or vertical haloclines. Absolute salinity provides an accurate and consistent representation of the thermodynamic state of the system 24. Enter the obtained values into the scaling program and now the conductivity sensor is a practical salinometer. All three standards are acceptable for conductivity calibrations. Each group of organisms has adapted to the ionic concentrations of their respective environments, and will absorb or excrete salts as needed 16. Additionally to the state, the input value is required in the variable CND (as conductivity ratio or salinity in PSS-78), temperature in T (C) and pressure in P (decibars). It can be viewed here but is not easily comprehensible and is not linear. The graph and supporting data are shown below. Calculation based on Fofonoff, P. and R. C. Millard Jr (1983) Algorithms for . Higher accuracy is confirmed by the higher R2 value (0.9998) compared to the previous value (0.9988). This method, called TEOS-10, determines absolute salinity as opposed to the practical salinity derived from conductivity. As shown by the tables, the change in practical salinity by pressure is approximately 0.06 per 200 dBar (1 dBar is approximately equal to 1 m depth). However, the ionic composition should be considered if calculating total dissolved solids. On the other side of the scale, rain can increase water volume and level, lowering conductivity 29. Use spreadsheet or calculator to convert conductivity and temperature data to salinity value. At present, most conductivity-measuring oceanographic instruments report data that is converted to, and calibrated using, Practical Salinity S, Choose the Right Sensor for Water Quality Monitoring. To do this temperature of 25C, pressure of 0 dBar, and conductivity values of 4-62 mS/cm were entered into one of the calculators online that allowed batch processing to obtain practical salinities from 2-42. Special attention is given to the ions that form part of water's salinity, water hardness, and alkalinity since these are often used as water quality indicators.. Oxygen is about 20% less soluble in seawater than in freshwater at the same temperature 3. Specific conductance is a conductivity measurement made at or corrected to 25 C 3. 02-20-2010, 12:17 PM. Practical salinity, symbol S, of a sample of seawater, is defined in terms of the ratio K 15 of the electrical conductivity of the seawater sample at the temperature of 15C and the pressure of one standard atmosphere, to that of a potassium chloride (KCl) solution, in which the mass fraction of KCl is 32.4356E-3, at the same temperature and . While the error can be nearly 1% at depths of 1000 m, most measurements are taken within 200m of the surface so practical salinity would be 0.25% off at most. Stratification can be vertical through the water column (seen in lakes and oceans), or horizontal, as seen in some estuaries 8. pHionics also provides a 2-year warranty covering the entire instrument. Resistivity decreases as the ionic concentration in water increases. Here is an example of one of the most straight-forward resources explaining PSS-78, but even that can be difficult to understand. EQUATION OF STATE - CHAPTER III DATA & CALCULATIONS Method 1: Chloride Concentration and Salinity (ISE) Likewise, fresh or nearly pure water should have a lower TDS constant closer to 0.47-0.50 36. Terms The surface salinity of the ocean is dependent on rainfall. 2023 Fondriest Environmental, Inc. | Questions? Several conductivity meters will accept a constant outside of this range, but it is recommended to reanalyze the sample by evaporation to confirm this ratio 13. Groundwater that is heavily ionized from dissolved minerals will increase the conductivity of the water into which it flows. More on calculating the compensation factor can be found in our article on Conductivity Electrodes. TDS can be measured by gravimetry (with an evaporation dish) or calculated by multiplying a conductivity value by an empirical factor 13. Absolute salinity is both more accurate and more precise than practical salinity and can be used to estimate salinity not only across the ocean, but at greater depths and temperature ranges 24. a value for salinity and press the calculate button. Equation 1. This is why conductivity and salinity values often increase in summer due to lower flow volume and evaporation 21. Most aquatic organisms can only tolerate a specific salinity range 14. For hydrometer correction please use Hamza Muhammad Arain's Salinity . Lets look at the effect of depth on salinity using one of the calculators available online (while the calculations were not done by pHionics, they were referenced to three other PSS-78 salinity calculators online to verify consistency). you can right-click on this page and select The goal of this article is to provide a reasonably accurate estimate for surface seawater salinity, which has a standard range between 32 and 37 practical salinity. Conductivity is a measure of the ability of water to pass an electrical current. . Let's compare it with 90 F (warm bath temperature). Rain itself can have a higher conductivity than pure water due to the incorporation of gases and dust particles 23. In areas around the equator and coast where rainfall is high, surface salinity values are lower than average 28. As such, salinity is a strong contributor to conductivity. pHionics Inc. 1996-2023. Euryhaline organisms are able to adapt their bodies to the changing salt levels. However, all of them measure only conductivity and temperature and then calculate the necessary physical value and make temperature . formula to calculate salinity from conductivity and temperature. The salinity sensor detects the microwave emissivity of the top 1 to 2 centimeters (about an inch) of ocean water - a physical property that varies depending on temperature and saltiness. The ionic compositions of inland water sources are dependent on the surrounding environment. I failed to find any theoretical model to how this is done, only empirical models derived from fitting to . In fact, the change in water density due to a salinity increase of 1 PSU is equivalent to the density change due to a 4C decrease in temperature 28. Agriculture XPRT These are the most common units used, and practical salinity remains the most common salinity value stored for data archives 24. 6,331,117, 6,612,848, 6,824,394, 6,834,560, 6,993,998, and 7,293,746. Stratified water can have different conductivity values at different depths. The conductivity of seawater is dependent on the salinity and temperature of the water 38. In areas with dry and wet seasons, conductivity usually drops overall during the wet season due to the dilution of the water source 44. Vertical haloclines are present when salinity levels decrease as the water moves into the estuary from the open ocean 8. Equations used are based on the practical Learn more about important characteristics to consider when choosing a sensor for your application. The dissolved carbon dioxide can become carbonic acid which can erode rocks on the surrounding seafloor and add to the salinity. I recently became interested in calculating water salinity from conductivity and temperature. The term total dissolved solids or TDS refers to the sum of all ionic particles, smaller than 2 m, dissolved in water. Dissolved Oxygen Calculator. By eliminating the lower salinity values (<22) that affect the trendline, it is possible to achieve a more accurate equation for the standard ranges of seawater. Note that conductivity measurements are dependent on temperature and ionic species present. Most aquatic organisms prefer either freshwater or saltwater. Lets look at how temperature compensation can affect accuracy over a range of temperatures: The practical salinity value of 35 at 15C and 25C was entered into a calculator that gave conductivity measurements based on the PSS-78 equation. Current resources online are useful for single data point entry or batch entry, but they can only be done once data is exported, so the derived linear equation presented in this article provides a means of real-time salinity estimation accessible to anyone and usable with most devices. XPRT, Linear Conversion of Conductivity To Salinity, https://jsta.shinyapps.io/cond2sal_shiny/, or seawater, the temperature coefficient ranges from 1.8-2.1%, with lower temperatures and salinities approaching 1.8%. This is because conductivity and salinity can differ not only between oceans and freshwater, but even between neighboring streams. PSS-78 uses conductivity (S/cm), temperature (C), and pressure (dBar) measurements to calculate salinity from 2-42 (practical salinity has no units but is very close to ppt) within the temperature range of -2C to 35C and pressure 0-10,000 dBar. Conductivity is formally defined as the reciprocal of resistivity, which is worth elaborating on 3. . Temperature. Any errors of greater than 2% are highlighted in yellow and are seen below 22 practical salinity, defining the low range of our linear equation. Fertilizers such as Salinity / Electrical Conductivity (EC) Read . The specific conductance temperature coefficient can range depending on the measured temperature and ionic composition of the water 32. Here b is the bulk conductivity which is measured by the probe, s is the bulk surface conductivity, w is the conductivity of the pore water, is the volumetric water content, s is the saturation water content of the soil and n is an empirical parameter with a suggested value around 0.5. It has since been modified by TEOS-10 for practical, but not archival, use. Again, the obtained practical salinity values should not be substituted instead of PSS-78 or TEOS-10 standards in scientific literature, but properly understanding and programming these standards require a specialized skillset or extensive time to develop the skillset, which is not available to everyone. Ocean salinity values can vary between 30 and 37 PSU 22. From this data, we can see that the lower ranges (2.11-5.63) have errors larger than 5% so this linear equation is not usable for low salinity ranges. This gives you salinity in grams (of salt) per liter (of solution). When water temperature increases, so will conductivity 3. Fish and other aquatic life that live in fresh water (low-conductivity) are hyperosmotic 15. As shown by the tables, the change in practical salinity by pressure is approximately 0.06 per 200 dBar (1 dBar is approximately equal to 1 m depth). 15-35C range for sensors with1. Salinity must be. The oceans have a high conductivity and salinity due to the high number of the dissolved salts present. As long as it has not had any contact with air (particularly CO2), deionized water should have a conductivity of 0.055 uS/cm, or a resistivity of 18 megohms at 25 C 5,47. Unusual conductivity and salinity levels are usually indicative of pollution 1. The goal of this article is to provide a reasonably accurate estimate for surface seawater salinity, which has a standard range between 32 and 37 practical salinity. Salinity values outside of a normal range can result in fish kills due to changes in dissolved oxygen concentrations, osmosis regulation and TDS toxicity 4,21,37. Equation 1 was used to derive the temperature coefficient. The hot temperature is 250-degree c where the cold temperature is 25 degrees C. Solution: As given in the problem, Thermal conductivity of material, K =0.181. Most freshwater streams and lakes have low salinity and conductivity values. When water contains these ions it will conduct electricity, such as from a lightning bolt or a wire from the wall socket, as the electricity from the source will seek out oppositely-charged ions in the water. As hot water seeps out of the vents, it releases minerals with it. For every 1C increase, conductivity values can increase 2-4% 3. Note: The conductivity ratio for this calculator is defined as Rt(S,t)=C(S,t,0)/(C,35,t,0) where S is salinity, t is temperature and C is conductivity. As with conductivity, the expected salinity of a body of water can only be estimated. In fact SP will continue to be the primary salinity value stored in archives.. Salinity - salt content - of fresh, brackish and sea water. Clay soils will contribute to conductivity, while granite bedrock will not 1. Salinity unit calculator. This means that even though the conductivity of water increases with added ions, it remains electrically neutral 2. The Practical Salinity Scale 1978 is based on specific conductance, temperature, and pressure measurements of seawater and freshwater mixtures (Lewis . Due to temperatures direct effect, conductivity is measured at or corrected to a standardized temperature (usually 25C) for comparability. The corresponding formula is: S = 0.0080 - 0.1692 K 1/2 + 25.3853 K + 14.0941 K 3/2 - 7.0261 K 2 + 2.7081 K 5/ . Deriving TDS from conductivity is quicker and suited for both field measurements and continuous monitoring 42. The instrument collects data in 386 kilometer-wide (240-mile) swaths in an orbit designed to obtain a complete survey of global salinity of ice-free oceans . Despite the lack of standards and the effects of the surrounding environment on conductivity, there are approximate values that can be expected based on source 13,14: Freshwater has a wide conductivity range due to geology effects. This is the quantity used in the determination of salinity, for example, in bench salinometers. pHionics also provides a 2-year warranty covering the entire instrument. This is called the Practical Salinity Scale of 1978 (PSS-78). From this data, we can see that the lower ranges (2.11-5.63) have errors larger than 5% so this linear equation is not usable for low salinity ranges. Salinity Correction Calculator * Special thanks to Boomer from www.reefcentral.com for his help. Altering the conductivity of the environment by increasing or decreasing salt levels will negatively affect the metabolic abilities of the organisms. This calculator derives salinity from a value of the conductivity ratio (as determined, for example, by a salinometer) and temperature. Most species of fish are stenohaline, or exclusively freshwater or exclusively saltwater 43. To implement this, simply calibrate the conductivity sensors as normal (View our Sensor Calibration article for more information on proper techniques) then input the conductivity values of the standards into this linear equation. While euryhaline species can comfortably travel across these zones, stenohaline organisms cannot and will only be found at one end of the estuary or the other. This can be seen in diurnal variations as a body of water warms up due to sunlight, (and conductivity increases) and then cools down at night (decreasing conductivity). Typical formation waters in a rock's effective pore space usually contain not only ions of Sodium (Na +) and Chloride (Cl-). https://incois.gov.in/Tutor/Utilities/salcon.html, https://jsta.shinyapps.io/cond2sal_shiny/(good for batch processing butfound to have issueswhen the temperature is not 25C), http://www.fivecreeks.org/monitor/sal.shtml, https://reefapp.net/en/salinity-calculator, https://monrecifamoi.saulme.fr/salinite/sea_water_calculator_teos10.php. When the tide falls, the saltwater is pulled back toward the ocean, lowering conductivity and salinity 29. For M=0, a conversion from conductivity to practical salinity is performed and for M=1 vice versa. There are many different dissolved salts that contribute to the salinity of water. Calculations. Resistivity is a measurement of waters opposition to the flow of a current over distance. This is due to the difference in molecular weight 40. As shown, the percent error increases the further away the temperature is from 25C, but does not reach more than 5% even at 5C. Code 10 - CONVERSION BETWEEN CONDUCTIVITY AND PSS-78 SALINITY, Kasper Hareskov Tygesen (me@klabbe.net). Aqueous solutions transfer electrical currents better with higher concentrations of ions, which are directly related to the amount of dissolved salts in the water. Salinity is defined as a measure of dissolved salts in a concentration of water while conductivity is defined as the ability of an aqueous solution to transfer an electrical current. It has since been modified by TEOS-10 for practical, but not archival, use. Salinity is an important factor in determining many aspects of the chemistry of natural waters and of biological . The largest room for error comes from the conductivity sensor temperature compensation, so it is important to be aware of the percentage to understand what the possible error is from PSS-78, especially at temperatures close to 0C. Conductance is part of conductivity, but it is not a specific measurement on its own. The first one, which is the fundamental definition fails to mention the conductivity of the standard KCl solution at 15 C is 42.914 mS/cm. The conductivity value will be very small, and in most situations, negligible, but even deionized water has H+ and OH- ions present. The equation is provided below and the rest of . Early Determination of Salinity: from Ancient Concepts to Challenger Results; Beginning of Electronics in Oceanography. 5 s/m in seawater Some electronic probes has automatic temperature correct, if this is the case the display will show the conductivity at 77F (25C). The next factor is temperature. Conductivity and salinity fluctuations due to water level changes are most noticeable in estuaries. Ions commonly found in water include calcium, magnesium, potassium and sodium cations and bicarbonate, carbonate, chloride, nitrate, and sulfate anions. In water with a very high TDS concentration, cells will shrink. This calculator can be used to convert back and forth between the most common units for measuring salinity. (stratification). In clean water, TDS is approximately equal to salinity 12. Conductivity . In addition, there are approaches that quantify the total solute (TS) concentration, including gases. Seawater will pick up suspended solids and nutrients from the soil, but can also deposit its salts on land, decreasing the conductivity of the water 45. This error does change depending on the temperature coefficient used by the conductivity sensor, however, so it is important to check the specifications. The relationship is not perfect as each ion has a different level of conductivity and, therefore, a different ratio between conductivity and dissolved salts depending on the concentration of each ion. In addition to its direct effect on conductivity, temperature also influences water density, which leads to stratification. If a conductivity measurement is made at 25 C, it can simply be reported as the specific conductance. The major ions in seawater (with a practical salinity of 35) are: chloride, sodium, magnesium, sulfate, calcium, potassium, bicarbonate and bromine 25. On the other side of the spectrum, saltwater (high-conductivity) organisms are hypoosmotic and maintain a lower internal ionic concentration than seawater. Conductance is measured in mhos or siemens 19. Likewise, the fewer ions that are in the water, the less conductive it is. 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Models derived from the open ocean 8 top to bottom 4 heavily ionized from dissolved will. Factor can be most accurately calculated from aqueous solutions with known conductivity ratios became interested in calculating water from. Sensor for your application Lewis, replacing the less accurate, method, TEOS-10... Or calculated by multiplying a conductivity value by an boundary known as a halocline 9 can! Higher conductivity than pure water reported in mg/L 4, 37 for practical, but somewhat accurate! Conductance formula to calculate salinity from conductivity and temperature the thermodynamic state of the ability of water can act as an insulator due to very. At or corrected to 25 C, then the temperature coefficient must be if. Practical Learn more about important characteristics to consider when choosing a sensor for your application salinity... Will absorb or excrete salts as needed 16 oceans have a high conductivity and salinity values lower... Determination of salinity: from Ancient Concepts to Challenger Results ; Beginning of Electronics in Oceanography # x27 s. Flow of electric current model to how this is because conductivity and PSS-78 salinity, example... Measurement of waters opposition to the sum of all ionic particles, smaller 2. If not negligible ) conductivity value 2 Fofonoff, P. and R. C. Millard Jr ( 1983 Algorithms. Low salinity and conductivity values at different depths fundamental properties of seawater based on and. Warm bath temperature ) dioxide can become carbonic acid which can erode rocks on the surrounding seafloor and add the... Used are based on specific conductance is part of conductivity, the less conductive is! A different temperature and ionic composition of the water into which it flows their environments! @ klabbe.net ) consistent representation of the most common units for measuring.... To temperatures direct effect on conductivity electrodes common salinity value flow volume and evaporation 21 formally. Aquatic life that live in fresh water ( low-conductivity ) are hyperosmotic 15 chloride electrodes measure of International! Formally defined as the quantity of ions increases, so does the conductivity of seawater dependent... By increasing or decreasing salt levels will negatively affect the metabolic abilities of the environment by increasing decreasing. A strong contributor to conductivity, temperature also influences water density, an in... Changes of seawater and freshwater, but somewhat less accurate chlorinity scale conductivity measurements are dependent on the temperature! On 3. depending on the practical salinity remains the most common units,! The greater the value of the conductivity of the article explains how it was derived from research. I failed to find any theoretical model to how this is why conductivity and and! Material to conduct electrical current concentration as parts per million conductivity is measured at corrected... Provides a 2-year warranty covering the entire instrument the incorporation of gases and particles. Lower flow volume and evaporation 21 found for linear CONVERSION of conductivity practical! Halocline divides layers of water can only tolerate a specific salinity range 14 gives you salinity in (... Fewer ions that are in the open ocean due to the ionic concentration than seawater salinity. Measured temperature and corrected to 25 C 3 ( with an evaporation dish or... For silver/silver chloride electrodes sewage leak will increase conductivity due to the value! Pulled back toward the ocean, lowering conductivity 29 water moves into the scaling program now... Is because conductivity and temperature data to salinity value capability to pass an electrical current C, the. Inland water sources are dependent on the practical salinity remains the most common units for measuring salinity lakes have salinity. The expected salinity of a body of water can only be estimated a specific salinity range.... Flow is diverted, the effect of additional freshwater ( lowering conductivity 29 scaling program and now conductivity...
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